assignment 1

A joint that permits no movement is known as a fixed joint. The skull and the gomphose connect the teeth to the skull are examples of fixed joints.

. An slightly movable allows a slight amount of movement at the joint. Examples of a slightly movable joints include the intervertebral disks of the spine and the pubic symphysis of the hips.

The third functional class of joints is the freely movable synovial joints. synovial joints have the highest range of motion of any joint and include the elbow, knee, shoulder, and wrist.

The bones of a synovial joint are surrounded by a synovial capsule which secretes synovial fluid to lubricate and nourish the joint while also acting as a shock absorber.

The ends of the joint bones are covered with the smooth, glass-like hyaline (articular) cartilage which reduces friction during movement

synovial membrane

a thin membrane of joints, comprised of smooth connective tissue and which secretes synovial fluid

synovial fluid

A viscous,  fluid found in the cavities of synovial joints. Its principal role is to reduce friction between the articular cartilage of synovial joints during movement

the hinge joint joint you use when kicking a football like cristiano ronaldo is in the picture when your about to kick it you use flexion when you connect with the ball you use extension.

you use your ball and socket to help with power in your shooting or passing in football like cristiano ronaldo is showing in the picture for example ronaldo is using abduction in the picture because its away from the midline of the body

https://m.youtube.com/watch?v=AvchZBhN3aE.

https://m.youtube.com/watch?v=SX9pdxreoLU.

https://m.youtube.com/watch?v=pfjTARXuqhY.


https://m.youtube.com/watch?v=gKzhRTEAC7E.


short term effects of exercise on the skeletal system

Increased Synovial Fluid Production

The bones and joints are avascular, that is, they have little or no blood supply. To keep joints healthy, stop cartilage from drying out and keep cartilage lubricated and nourished, the joints produce an oil-like substance called synovial fluid.synovial fluid is produced by the synovial membrane within the joints and is a short-term or acute response to exercise. 

Increased Joint Range of Movement

Exercise increases the production of synovial fluid, which keeps joints lubricated and makes them supple. Synovial fluid production increases the range of movement available at the joints in the short term. Often, after long periods of immobility, the joints “dry out,” stiffen up and lose some of their movement range. 
exercise increases the range of movement available at the joints as more lubricating synovial fluid is released into them. Mobility exercises such as arm circles and knee bends keep joints supple by ensuring a steady supply of synovial fluid.

Increased Bone Density

Weight-bearing exercise such as strength training and running put stress through your bones. In response to this stress, bodies produce cells called osteoblasts, which build new bone and make bones stronger and denser. Increased bone density can prevent a condition called osteoporosis, which is the weakening of bone and an increased likelihood of suffering fractures. Osteoporosis is more common in older females but can affect either sex at any age.

Stronger Ligaments

The bones are held together with nonelastic  strap or cord-like structures called ligaments. Without ligaments, the joints would be very unstable and would probably bend the wrong way! When exposed to regular exercise, ligaments become stronger and more resistant to injury. Because ligaments have no or a very poor blood supply, any adaptations are very slow to develop.

Athlete Profile:

Name: Daniel Warner

Age: 18

Height: 5'1

Nationality: Barbados

Sporting Background:

Daniel began playing football at the age of 4 years old. He grow up in a sporting family and was encouraged to continue playing the sport. At the age of 10 he began regular training with QPR coaches on a Saturday morning. For a while Daniel stopped playing football but would regularly train with friends.

When Daniel joined the school football team. He also joined AFC Wembley Sunday league team and he developed as a footballer. improving on his technique and his skill. he left AFC Wembley after one season.





muscular system
The muscular system is responsible for the movement of the human body. Attached to the bones of the skeletal system are about 700 named muscles that make up roughly half of a person’s body weight.
Each of these muscles is a organ constructed of skeletal muscle tissue, blood vessels, tendons, and nerves.
Muscle tissue is also found inside of the heart, digestive organs, and blood vessels.

Muscle Types
There are three types of muscle tissue: Smooth, cardiac, and skeletal.

Smooth muscle is found inside of organs like the stomach, intestines, and blood vessels. The weakest of all muscle tissues, visceral muscle makes organs contract to move substances through the organ. Because visceral muscle is controlled by the unconscious part of the brain, it is known as involuntary muscle—it cannot be directly controlled by the conscious mind. This smooth appearance starkly contrasts with the banded appearance of cardiac and skeletal muscles

Cardiac Muscle. Found only in the heart, cardiac muscle is responsible for pumping blood throughout the body. Cardiac muscle tissue cannot be controlled consciously, so it is an involuntary muscle.  The arrangement of protein fibers inside of the cells causes these light and dark bands.

Skeletal Muscle. Skeletal muscle is the only voluntary muscle tissue in the human body—it is controlled consciously. Every physical action that a person consciously performs (e.g. speaking, walking, or writing) requires skeletal muscle. The function of skeletal muscle is to contract to move parts of the body closer to the bone that the muscle is attached to. Most skeletal muscles are attached to two bones across a joint, so the muscle serves to move parts of those bones closer to each other.

Function of Muscle Tissue

The main function of the muscular system is movement. Muscles are the only tissue in the body that has the ability to contract and therefore move the other parts of the body. The function of movement is the muscular system’s second function: the maintenance of posture and body position. Muscles often contract to hold the body still or in a particular position rather than to cause movement. The muscles responsible for the body’s posture have the greatest endurance of all muscles in the body—they hold up the body throughout the day without becoming tired.

Another function related to movement is the movement of substances inside the body. The cardiac and visceral muscles are primarily responsible for transporting substances like blood or food from one part of the body to another. 

The final function of muscle tissue is the generation of body heat. As a result of the high metabolic rate of contracting muscle, our muscular system produces a great deal of waste heat.Many small muscle contractions within the body produce our natural body heat.
 When we exert ourselves more than normal, the extra muscle contractions lead to a rise in body temperature and eventually to sweating.

Functional Types of Skeletal Muscle Fibres

Skeletal muscle fibers can be divided into two types based on how they produce and use energy: Type I and Type II

Type I fibers are very slow and deliberate in their contractions. They are very resistant to fatigue because they use aerobic respiration to produce energy from sugar. We find Type I fibers in muscles throughout the body for stamina and posture. Near the spine and neck regions, very high concentrations of Type I fibers hold the body up throughout the day.

Type II fibers are broken down into two subgroups: Type II A and Type II B. Type II A fibers are faster and stronger than Type I fibers, but do not have as much endurance. Type II A fibers are found throughout the body, but especially in the legs where they work to support your body throughout a long day of walking and standing. 

Type II B fibers are even faster and stronger than Type II A, but have even less endurance. Type II B fibers are also much lighter in color than Type I and Type II A due to their lack of myoglobin, an oxygen-storing pigment. We find Type II B fibers throughout the body, but particularly in the upper body where they give speed and strength to the arms and chest at the expense of stamina.

3 types of energy systems
ATP = ADP + P +Energy
The human body is also capable of resynthesizing ATP to allow it to continue producing energy.
 The breakdown of ATP is called exothermic as it produces energy
The process of breaking down and resynthesizing ATP is efficient at producing energy as less energy is required to resynthesis the ATP than is made to break it down. CP is an abbreviation for Creatine-phosphate. CP like ATP, is stored in the muscle cells, and when it is broken down, a large amount of energy is released. The energy released is coupled to the energy requirement necessary for the resynthesis of ATP. The total muscular stores of both ATP and CP are very small. the amount of energy obtainable through this system is limited. In fact, if you were to run 100 meters as fast as you could, the phosphagen stores in the working muscles would probably be empty by the end of the sprint meaning it takes about 15-30 seconds to use. However, the usefulness of the ATP-CP system lies in the rapid availability of energy rather than quantity. This is extremely important with respect to the kinds of physical activities that we are capable of performing.

 ATP is plentiful for a very short time. After this, another chemical called PC (phosphocreatine) starts manufacturing ATP. PC is like ATP in the fact that it is made from foods you eat and stored in the cells. The body stores only small amounts of ATP and PC, and the energy from this source can only be used for short immediate bursts, such as lifting weights or the start of a race when you need a quick explosive burst of energy.

Anaerobic means"without oxygen. And glycosis is the breaking down of glucose. Glucose is a form of carbohydrate that is stored in the blood. So, basically, this second energy system produces ATP by the process of breaking down glucose. The glucose is only partially broken down and it leaves a by-product behind called lactic acid. Lactic acid forms in the muscle and gives the feeling of discomfort and muscle fatigue, it also hinders the production of ATP. For a person new to exercising, this brief period of sensation may discourage them and cause them to stop exercising because they don't know that the third energy system is on its way. This energy system is relied on by activities such as wrestling and gymnastics.

The aerobic energy system utilises proteins, fats and carbohydrate (glycogen) for resynthesising ATP. This energy system can be developed with various intensity (Tempo) runs. The types of Tempo runs are:
Continuous Tempo - long slow runs at 50 to 70% of maximum heart rate. This places demands on muscle and liver glycogen. The normal response by the system is to enhance muscle and liver glycogen storage capacities and glycolytic activity associated with these processes


Also the aerobic system produces the largest amounts of energy, although at the lowest intensity. At the start of exercise the body cannot deliver oxygen to the muscles fast enough to initiate the complex chemical reactions which occur during aerobic metabolism. Therefore the body relies on anaerobic processes for the first couple of minutes.

AEROBIC & ANAEROBIC ENZYMES – INCREASES IN SIZE AND NUMBER OF
MITOCHONDRIA ARE ACCOMPANIED BY INCREASES IN THE ENZYMES THAT WORK INSIDE TO
INCREASE THE PRODUCTION OF AEROBIC ENERGY. THESE CHANGES EXPLAIN INCREASED
PERFORMANCES IN AEROBIC EXERCISE. THE SAME CAN BE SAID OF ENZYMES THAT HELP
PRODUCE ENERGY WITHIN THE LACTIC ACID SYSTEM WHEN GLUCOSE IS BEING BROKEN DOWN

FAT IS A MAIN SOURCE OF ENERGY  DURING LOW INTENSITY EXERCISE. WHEN GLYCOGEN STORES DEPLETE DURING LONG PERIODS  OF EXERCISE THE USE OF FAT AS A FUEL INCREASES. TRAINED ATHLETES CAN USE A  GREATER AMOUNT OF FAT AS A FUEL COMPARED TO NON-ATHLETES WHICH CAN HELP IN  PRESERVING GLYCOGEN STORES FOR A LONGER  PERIOD.

acute and chronic responses of the muscular system
Our energy requirements are increased during the transition from rest to exercise so as to meet the greater demand for power output during muscle contraction . This need is met by our body systems, which increase the delivery of oxygen and fuels to the working muscles for ATP re synthesis.

The immediate changes that are observed in the respiratory, cardiovascular and muscular body systems are a coordinated response to meet the increased energy demand of physical work.
 These  alterations to exercise intensity and duration are known as the body’s acute responses.
The numerous functions of the muscular system are performed by only three different types of muscle: cardiac, smooth and skeletal.

The intensity and duration of exercise will in turn determine the type of muscle fi bres recruited and
the force and frequency of muscle contraction. A single human muscle contains fibres that shorten at different speeds and produce varying amounts of force

increased muscle recruitment
• increased fuel metabolism
• increased oxygen consumption
• increased production of metabolic
byproducts
• increased temperature
Decrease in skin temperature
• Increased oxygen transport to the tissue
Possible increased capilarisation
• Increased aerobic enzymes
• Loss of muscle mass
 blood pressure  refers to the pressure exerted by the heart during relaxation that allows blood to fill its chambers (atrium and ventricle) in readiness for contraction.  blood flow during maximal exertion for a person of average fitness is greater than the maximum fl ow of a kitchen tap. Immediately after
the onset of exercise there is a redistribution of blood fl ow throughout the body to meet the energy demands of active muscle.  increase in blood flow to the active muscles and a reduction in blood flow to the organs occurs to meet the greater oxygen and nutrient demands. Several mechanisms work together to redistribute blood fl ow during exercise

pliability  

 muscle spindles are located within muscle fibres. When muscle spindles are streched the nerve impulses are made and information relative to the degree of stretch is sent to the nervous system. It then sends the messages back telling them how many motor units should be contracted in order to have a smooth movement. When your body is used to steady state exercise the more efficient your muscles spindles become at transmitting information, and the more pliable muscles become.

range of movement

Flexibility

Flexibility is the range of movement around a joint, and the length in muscle that cross the joint. Flexibility is different in terms of difference in muscle length or multi-joint muscle.

muscle micro tears

There is a micro - filament in a muscle cell that enables it to contract. The destruction of these filaments prevent the function of that muscle cell. A large amount of micro tears in a large amount of muscle cells contributes to the soreness present during weight training and is what triggers the body into producing stronger muscle.

hypertrophy 

From an increase in the muscle size and bulk, hypertrophy, are the results of increase in volume of contractile protein within the muscle cells so they can contract with greater force. Stress results in part of muscle breaking, the heavier the weights the more the muscle breaks. Rest and eating the right foods allow the body to repair itself, muscle tissue mends making it bigger and better. A weightlifting athlete would increase their training load from once a week to 4 times a week and go from 8-12 reps on a medium weight to one rep max.

 mitochondria

Muscle increase their oxidative it allows the body to use oxygen quicker capcity with regular training. This is achieved through an increase in the number of mitochondria within the muscle cells. An increase supply of ATP and an increase in the quantity of eneymes involved in respiration. Alongside muscle ability to store myoglobin is also increase alongside the ability to store and use glycogen and fat.

muscle strength 

Tendons are what attach muscle to bone. Tendons adapt to mechanical loading by increasing in strength, through different types of training will have different effects. Ligaments and tendons will increase in flexibility and strength, cartilage becomes thicker. Chemicals get released and new fibres are made to repair old or damaged fibres.

Lactic Acid

Anerobic training stimulates the muscles to become better able to tolerate lactic acid, and clear it away more efficiently. Endurance training extends the capillary network, allowing greater volumes of blood to supply the muscles with oxygen and nutrients. Muscles are able to use more fats as fuel and become more effiecent at using Oxygen , increasing the body's ability to work harder for longer without fatiguing. For example during a marathon towards the end of the race lactic acid may start to occur due to lack of oxygen being allowed into the body therefore depriving the muscles of oxygen and nuitrents.

P2
Cardiovascular system

The structure and function

•The cardiovascular system consists of the heart, blood vessels, and blood. This system has three main functions: Transport of nutrients, oxygen, and hormones to cells throughout the body and removal of metabolic wastes carbon dioxide, nitrogenous wastes.

•Protection of the body by white blood cells, antibodies, and complement proteins that circulate in the blood and defend the body against foreign microbes and toxins.

•With its veins, arteries, and capillaries, the cardiovascular system keeps life pumping through you. The heart, blood vessels, and blood help to transport vital nutrients throughout the body as well as remove metabolic waste. 

•They also help to protect the body and regulate body temperature.

•Regulation of body temperature, fluid pH, and water content of cells.

Respiratory system

•There are 3 major parts of the respiratory system: the airway, the lungs, and the muscles of respiration. The airway, which includes the nose and the mouth  carries air between the lungs 

•Its responsible for transporting oxygen from air we breathe in our body

•The cells of the human body require a constant stream of oxygen to stay alive. 

•The respiratory system provides oxygen to the body’s cells while removing carbon dioxide, a waste product that can be lethal if allowed to assemble.

•The lungs act as the main function of the respiratory system by passing oxygen into the body and carbon dioxide out of the body.

•The muscles of respiration, including the diaphragm and intercostal muscles, work together to act as a pump, pushing air into and out of the lungs during breathing.

Composition of air

•Lungs

•Each lung is surrounded by a pleural membrane that provides the lung with space to expand as well as a negative pressure space relative to the body’s exterior.

•The negative pressure allows the lungs to passively fill with air as they relax.

•If you inhale air 79.04% is nitrogen we take in 20.93% of oxygen and 0.003% is carbon dioxide

•79% nitrogen you breathe out also 17% oxygen and 4% carbon dioxide

•Muscles of Respiration

•Surrounding the lungs are sets of muscles that are able to cause air to be inhaled or exhaled from the lungs. 

•The principal muscle of respiration in the human body is the diaphragm, a thin sheet of skeletal muscle that forms the floor of the thorax.

•When the diaphragm contracts, it moves a few inches into the abdominal cavity, expanding the space within the thoracic cavity and pulling air into the lungs. 

•Relaxation of the diaphragm allows air to flow back out the lungs during exhalation.

Diffusion of gasses

•The exchange of gases (O2 & CO2) between the alveoli & the blood occurs by simple diffusion. O2 diffusing from the alveoli into the blood & CO2 from the blood into the alveoli. The concentration or pressure)of O2 in the alveoli must be kept at a higher level than in the blood & the concentration or pressure of CO2 in the alveoli must be kept at a lower lever than in the blood. 

•We do this, of course, by breathing  continuously bringing fresh air with lots of O2 & little CO2 into the lungs & the alveoli.

How you could control respiration

•Control of ventilation refers to the physiological mechanisms involved in the control of physiologic ventilation

• Gas exchange primarily controls the rate of respiration.

•The most important function of breathing is gas exchange of oxygen and carbon dioxide. And the control of respiration is centred primarily on how well this is achieved by the lungs

• Respiration can be affected by higher brain conditions such as emotional state

•While breathing can obviously be controlled both consciously and unconsciously, all other basic functions provided by the brain can not be controlled voluntarily. 
cardiovascular  acute and chronic responses 
hypertrophy of the left ventricle increases in volume.
this means that the stroke volume increases which means a greater cardiac output is achieved at maximum levels
resting heart rates decreases because less beats are needed to provide the same amount of cardiac output  due to increased stroke volume

also increased capillarisation which increases distribution of blood to muscles
increased haemoglobin levels in blood vessels - more oxygen to be carried to the muscles also red blood cells increase
the difference in oxygen concentration between the arterioles and venules measures how much oxygen muscles are using.

aerobic adaptations lead to improved oxygen delivery and use. it also increases the aerobic capacity of an individual improving their ability to respire aerobically.

increase  in thickness of the right and left ventricle walls but it doesnt increase stroke volume but it improves the hearts ability to circulate blood

a thicker wall produces a more  forceful contraction which helps the blood push through arteries
when muscles are contracting they have low oxygen supply


respiratory system acute and chronic responses
increased tidal volume and lower respiration rate at rest and sub maximal levels
because there are less breaths at sub maximal levels, air stays in the lungs longer allowing more oxygen separation
increased ventilation at maximal levels

decreased use of oxygen by respiratory muscles such as the diaphragm frees oxygen for use by other skeletal muscles involved in exercise
 Respiration increases during exercise in proportion to the metabolic needs of the working muscles to enable the exchange of oxygen and carbon dioxide (CO2 ) to take place in the lungs.

 The response of the respiratory system will also vary with exercise intensity and duration, and the training status of the individual.

P3

Aerobic Fitness

the heart's ability to deliver blood to working muscles and their ability to use it (e.g. running long distances)

Bleep Test

This test involves continuous running between two lines 20m apart in time to recorded beeps. For this reason the test if also often called the ‘beep’ or ‘bleep’ tests. The subjects stand behind one of the lines facing the second line, and begin running when instructed by the recording. The speed at the start is quite slow. The subject continues running between the two lines, turning when signalled by the recorded beeps. After about one minute, a sound indicates an increase in speed, and the beeps will be closer together. This continues each minute level. If the line is reached before the beep sounds, the subject must wait until the beep sounds before continuing. If the line is not reached before the beep sounds, the subject is given a warning and must continue to run to the line, then turn and try to catch up with the pace within two more ‘beeps’. The test is stopped if the subject fails to reach the line within 2 meters for two consecutive ends after a warning.

Advantages: Large groups can perform this test all at once for minimal costs. Also, the test continues to maximum effort unlike many other tests of endurance capacity.

Disadvantages: Practice and motivation levels can influence the score attained, and the scoring can be subjective. As the test is often conducted outside, the environmental conditions can affect the results

validity : There are published VO2max score equivalents for each level reached, which can be determined using this Beep VO2MAX calculator. 

reliability : The reliability of the beep test would depend on how strictly the test is run and the practice allowed for the subjects. There are also other factors which can affect performance, which need to be controlled if possible. 

Heart

Short-term aerobic exercise such as running for 30 minutes will not increase the size of your heart muscle, nor will it thicken the walls of your heart. However, long-term aerobic exercise will increase the size and thickness of your heart, especially during moderately to vigorously intense exercise. These changes are reversible when you discontinue aerobic training.

Blood Vessels

the blood vessels going to your working skeletal muscles increase in size, or dilate so more blood can flow to these muscles. Long-term aerobic exercise improves the elasticity of your blood vessels, or the ability of your vessels to expand and contract. The improved elasticity delivers more oxygen and glucose to your muscles at a faster rate. The number of capillaries in your working muscles also increases as an adaptation to long-term aerobic exercise.

Blood Volume

The amount of blood circulating in your body increases within 24 hours after your first exercise session depending on how long you exercise for.

          Sit & reach

Component of fitness – flexibility 

Test protocol:

This test involves sitting on the floor with legs stretched out straight ahead. Shoes should be removed. The soles of the feet are placed flat against the box. Both knees should be locked and pressed flat to the floor - the tester may assist by holding them down. With the palms facing downwards, and the hands on top of each other or side by side, the subject reaches forward along the measuring line as far as possible. Ensure that the hands remain at the same level, not one reaching further forward than the other. After some practice reaches, the subject reaches out and holds that position for at one-two seconds while the distance is recorded. Make sure there are no jerky movements.

Advantages:

The sit and reach test is a common test of flexibility, and is an easy and quick test to perform. If using the standard testing procedure, there is a lot of published data to use for comparison.

Disadvantages: 

Variations in arm, leg and trunk length can make comparisons between individuals misleading. This test is specific to the range of motion and muscles and joints of the lower back and hamstrings, and may not be relevant to other parts of the body.

validity : This test only measures the flexibility of the lower back and hamstrings, and is a valid measure of this. 

reliability : The reliability of this test will depend on the amount of warm-up that is allowed, and whether the same procedures are followed each time the test is conducted. Most sit and reach testing norms are based on no previous warm-up, though the best results will be achieved after a warm up or if the test is proceeded by a test such as the endurance test which can act as a warm up. If a warm up is used

Sit and reach	-        3 cm	Very poor
Bleep Test	14	Excellent